Early Soviet policy towards northern Native peoples was aimed at establishing Aboriginal nations that retained traditional languages and occupations and included Native peoples in Soviet institutions such as schools, collective farms, and the Communist Party. However, the success of these initiatives varied. While boarding schools provided new educational and occupational opportunities for Aboriginal peoples, traditional occupations and Native languages suffered. Focusing on the final years of the Soviet Union, the authors describe the efforts of Aboriginal political activists to address the problem of protecting Aboriginal rights in nations with large, non-Aboriginal majorities and explore whether protection of traditional cultures excludes participation in the larger society. In addressing these universal issues, When the North Was Red is relevant to all nations where Native peoples co-exist with non-Aboriginal majorities.