A chilling exploration of how Imperial Japan framed war as justice—and how that moral logic helped unleash extraordinary brutality across Asia and the Pacific.

Why was the Japanese Army so brutal before and during World War Two? This haunting question anchors a sweeping investigation into the moral universe of Imperial Japan’s soldiers, tracing their path from the twilight of the samurai age to the ashes of Manila in 1945.

Punishment uncovers a world in which war was conceived not merely as combat, but also as justice. Officers and soldiers learned to navigate two rival visions of war: one restrained by the ‘foreign gaze’ of the Western world, the other rooted in older traditions that cast adversaries as ‘rebels’ and ‘bandits’ deserving exemplary punishment. However, these competing strategies were intertwined, in an interplay of mutual mitigation and brutalisation. Drawing on archival material in six languages and fieldwork conducted across Asia—from Taiwan’s indigenous highlands to Manchuria’s sorghum fields and the streets of Nanjing—Danny Orbach reveals how ambiguity, obedience, fear and ideology converged on the battlefield. Vague orders could become massacres, and the boundary between necessity and cruelty became perilously thin.

Part detective story, part moral history, Punishment illuminates how a modern state slid into devastating violence—and why that descent was neither inevitable nor easily explained.

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‘A nuanced and important contribution to our understanding of one of the most brutal military institutions of the twentieth century.’

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‘Deeply researched and beautifully written, Punishment offers a fresh explanation of the paradox of Japan’s military: commitment to Western norms of warfare alongside infamous brutality. Orbach ranges deftly from the samurai era to 1945, and from high command to the front line.’

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'An elegantly written, meticulously researched and extremely timely book. Though focused on twentieth-century Japan, Punishment makes an argument of universal significance: when armies come to view enemy combatants as bandits, savages and criminals, restraints on warfare give way to acts of astonishing brutality.'

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'Sophisticated and nuanced, Punishment examines how Japan’s warrior ethics responded to Western notions of civilisation and barbarism while refusing simplistic explanations for when, where and why soldiers committed atrocities.'

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‘A terrifying march through the history of violence in Japan’s modern armed forces, Punishment challenges readers to understand mass military violence as the intersection of changing legal codes and competing notions of civilisation and barbarism.

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'A powerful, riveting and provocative account of brutality in the Imperial Japanese Army.'